Methodological framework for rock blasting in open pit mining

The methodology of rock blasting in open pit mining is examined at variability of drilling and blasting design patterns for the improvement of rock fragmentation quality. Formation of controllable and uncontrollable fragmentation zones and their influence on origination of oversize fractions is analyzed. The proposed approach of conjugation of the controllable fragmentation zones ensures a decrease in the yield of oversize owing to optimization of drilling patterns (transition from square to diamond-shape well patterns) and correction of initiation charts. It is shown that the Kuz–Ram model with regard to fragmentation zones allows a highervariable prediction of grain size composition of blasted rock mass. it is found that the increase in the powder factor not always increases the uniformity of fragmentation–there is an optimal ratio of the powder factor and blasthole spacing. Uniform fragmentation is achievable at different well patterns but the yield of oversize is different as well. Selection of surface delays and well patterns allows modifying explosion dynamics and improving quality of rock blasting.

Afanasev P. I. Methodological framework for rock blasting in open pit mining. MIAB. Mining Inf. Anal. Bull. 2025;(12):28-41. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.25018/0236_1493_2025_ 12_0_28.

The study was supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation under the state contract within Program FSRW-2023-0002 for Basic Interdisciplinary Research of Subsoil and Integrated Georesources Development.

P.I. Afanasev, Cand. Sci. (Eng.), Assistant Professor, Empress Catherine II Saint-Petersburg Mining University, 199106, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, e-mail: Afanasev_PI@pers.spmi.ru.

1. Rakhmanov R. A., Loeb D., Kosukhin N. I. Evaluation of ore contour displacements after blasting using a BMM system. Journal of Mining Institute. 2020, vol. 245, pp. 547—553. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.31897/PMI.2020.5.6.

2. Yastrebova K., Moldovan D., Chernobay V. Influence of the nature of the outflow of explosion products from blast holes and boreholes on the efficiency of rock destruction. E3S Web of Conferences. 2020, vol. 174, no. 4, article 01017. DOI: 10.1051/e3sconf/202017401017.

3. Pavlovich A. A., Khoreva A. Yu. Determination of dump material strength properties for assessing dump slope stability. Gornyi Zhurnal. 2023, no. 5, pp. 55—61. [In Russ].

4. Moroz N. E., Gendler S. G., Romanevich K. V. Assessment of gas-dynamic hazards based on field and laboratory studies of elastic wave velocities in host rocks of the «International». Russian Mining Industry Journal. 2025, no. 2, pp. 65—72. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.30686/16099192-2025-2-65-72.

5. Olorunnipa Alaba, Babatunde Adebayo Correlation of rock and blast properties with elevated quarry floor and their effects on mining costs. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology Studies. 2024, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 30—48. DOI: 10.37745/ijeats.13/vol12n33048.

6. Isheysky V. A., Martynushkin E. A., Vasilyev A. S., Smirnov S. A. Features of data collection during blast hole drilling for geo-structural block model formation. Sustainable Development of Mountain Territories. 2021, vol. 13, no. 4(50), pp. 608—619. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.21177/1998-4502-2021-13-4608-619.

7. Kovalevich S. V., Zyryanov I. V., Chernobay V. I. Experience of drilling-and-blasting in diamond fields in Yakutia. Journal of Mining Science. 2022, vol. 58, pp. 953—965. DOI: 10.1134/S106 2739122060102.

8. Zhang C. S., Sanchidrián A. J., Oosterloo F., Luukkanen S. Reduction of fragment size from mining to mineral processing. A review. Gornaya Mekhanika i Proektirovanie Gornykh Rabot. 2023, vol. 56, pp. 747—778. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.1007/s00603-022-03068-3.

9. Kazakov N. N., Shlyapin A. V. Development of the camouflet spherical phase in the lower zone of a quarry block. Explosion technology. 2020, no. 129-86, pp. 25—33. [In Russ].

10. Viktorov S. D., Kazakov N. N., Shlyapin A. V., Lapikov I. N. On the theory of rock fragmentation by blasting in quarries. Explosion technology. 2021, no. 130-87, pp. 5—14. [In Russ].

11. Zamyshlyaev B. V., Evterev L. S. Modeli dinamicheskogo deformirovaniya i razrusheniya gruntovykh sred [Models of dynamic deformation and failure of soil media], Moscow, Nauka, 1990, 215 p.

12. Isheysky V. A., Vasilyev A. S. Correlation assessment of blast hole drilling process parameters. Explosion technology. 2021, no. 130-87, pp. 113—126. [In Russ].

13. Velikanov V. S., Chernukhin S. A., Telminov N. S. Influence of blasted rock mass granulometry on stress distribution in quarry excavator working equipment. Vestnik of Nosov Magnitogorsk State Technical University. 2024, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 30—43. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.18503/1995-2732-2024-224-30-43.

14. Sandeep Prasad, Choudharyb B. S., Mishrac A. K. Effect of stemming to burden ratio and powder factor on blast induced rock fragmentation— A case study. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 2017, vol. 225, article 012191.

15. Losaladjome Mboyo H., Huo B., Mulenga F. K., Mabe Fogang P., Kalenga Kaunde Kasongo J. Assessing the impact of surface blast design parameters on the performance of a comminution circuit processing a copper-bearing ore. Minerals. 2024, vol. 14, article 1226. DOI: 10.3390/ min14121226.

16. Kutuzov B. N., Valukhin Yu. K., Davydov S. A., Kamenka B. I., Korenistov A. V., Rubtsov V. K., Strausman R. Ya. Proektirovanie vzryvnykh rabot [Blasting works design], Moscow, Nedra, 1974, 328 p.

17. Menzhulin M. G., Khoreva A. Yu., Tyulkin S. A., Afanasyev P. I. Determination of drilling and blasting parameters for the Gavrilovskoye granite deposit. Gornyi Zhurnal. 2017, no. 1, pp. 42—46. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.17580/gzh.2017.01.08.

18. Egorov V. V., Volokitin A. N., Ugolnikov N. V., Sokolovsky A. V. Justification of drilling and blasting parameters ensuring required fragmentation. Russian Mining Industry Journal. 2021, no. 3, pp. 110—115. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.30686/1609-9192-2021-3-110-115.

19. Serdaliyev Y., Bakhramov B., Alip A. Improvement of blasting technology at gold-ore mining enterprises using contour blasting. Mining of Mineral Deposits. 2025, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 83—94. DOI: 10.33271/mining19.02.083.

20. Yu Ni, Zhiliang Wang, J.G. Wang, Songyu Li Numerical study on rock blasting fragmentation under the coupling effect of strength and environmental factors. Engineering Fracture Mechanics. 2025. DOI: 10.1016/j.engfracmech.2025.111251.

21. Cunningham C. V. B. The Kuz—Ram fragmentation model — 20 Years on. Proceedings of the 3rd European Federation of Explosives Engineers World Conference on Explosives and Blasting, Brighton. 2005, vol. 4, pp. 201—210.

22. Vinith Kumar P. V., Avtar K. Raina, P. Balamadeswaran, Ram Chandar Karra Evaluating blast fragmentation: a comparative study of electronic and shock-tube initiation systems in a limestone mine. Disaster Advances. 2025, vol. 18, no. 5, pp. 153—162. DOI: 10.25303/185da1530162.

23. Ouchterlony F., Sanchidrián J. A., Moser P. Percentile fragment size predic-tions for blasted rock and the fragmentation—energy fan. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering. 2017, vol. 50, no. 4, pp. 751—779. DOI: 10.1007/s00603-016-1094-x.

24. Das R. K., Dhekne P. Y. Estimation of rock fragmentation using electronic and shock tube detonators in limestone mine blasting. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2022, vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 534—542.

25. Korshunov V. A., Pavlovich A. A., Bazhukov A. A. Assessment of shear strength of rocks along fractures based on spherical indenter test results. Journal of Mining Institute. 2023, vol. 262, pp. 606— 618. [In Russ].

26. Kuznetsov V. M. Matematicheskie modeli vzryvnogo dela [Mathematical models of blasting], Novosibirsk, Nauka, 1977, 259 p.

27. Saadoun A., Frej M., Boukarm R., Hadji R. Fragmentation analysis using digital image processing and the KuzRam empirical model: A comparative study. Journal of Mining Institute. 2022, vol. 257, pp. 822—832. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.31897/PMI.2022.84.

28. Sanchidrián J. A., Segarra P., Ouchterlony F., Gómez S. The influential role of powder factor vs. delay in full-scale blasting: a perspective through the fragment size-energy fan. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering. 2022, vol. 55, no. 5, pp. 4209—4236. DOI: 10.1007/ s00603-022-02856-1.

29. Matsimbe J., Shaba M., Musonda I., Dinka M. Comparative application of digital image processing and kuz-ram model in blast fragmentation analysis: Case of Shayona cement quarry. Advances in information technology in civil and building engineering. ICCCBE 2022. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, 2023. vol 358. Springer, Cham. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-32515-1_13.

30. Savich I. N., Barnov N. G., Mustafin V. I. Parameters of drilling and blasting operations and granulometric composition of ore mass. MIAB. Mining Inf. Anal. Bull. 2024, no. S15, pp. 3—9.

31. Sinitsyn V. A., Men'shikov P. V., Kutuev V. A. Determination of the main characteristics of explosives and the impact of explosion on the environment based on the use of «DATA TRAP II» measuring equipment. Sustainable Development of Mountain Territories. 2018, vol. 10, no. 3(37), pp. 383—392. [In Russ].

32. Zhang Z. X., Sanchidrián A. J., Ouchterlony F., Luukkanen S. Reduction of fragment size from mining to mineral processing. A review. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering. 2023, vol. 56, pp. 747—778. DOI: 10.1007/s00603-022-03068-3.

33. Qing Yang, Qidong Gao, Yongsheng Jia, Haixiao Zhou, Xin Gao, Wei Jiang, Xiaobo Ma Application of simulation methods and image processing techniques in rock blasting and fragmentation optimization. Applied Sciences. 2025, vol. 15, article 3365.

34. Gavrishev S. E., Kalmykov V. N., Pikalov V. A., Karaulov N. G., Ugolnikov N. V. Development of recommendations for regulating the fragment size of construction rocks during blasting. Russian Mining Industry Journal. 2025, no. 1, pp. 58—63. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.30686/1609-9192-2025-1-58-63.

35. Marinin M. A. Calculation of drilling and blasting parameters for a target granulometric composition of broken rock in open-pit mining. Gornyi Zhurnal. 2025, no. 3, pp. 79—86. [In Russ].

36. Moroz N. E., Gendler S. G., Vyunnikov A. A., Razumov E. E. Application of the geomechanical rock quality designation RQD for the prediction of gas-dynamic phenomena during mine working excavation at the Internatsionalny mine. News of the Tula state university. Sciences of Earth. 2023, no. 4, pp. 628—639. [In Russ].