Development and analysis of hazard formation in open stoping and haulage of ore

Modern underground mines feature a high level of production automation and a wide range of advanced equipment, including self-sustained machines. Development of mining technologies with remote-control load–haul–dumpers lead to expansion of stoping systems with caving and backfill. In this case, LHD enter the stoping areas where access of people is prohibited. Although an LHD operator is situated in a safe zone, the risk of damage and loss of expensive equipment because of different-nature rock falls and collapses is very high. Events of damage and obstruction of load–haul–dumpers as stoping and haulage of rock mass advance are rather frequent in mines. Using the implemented analysis of mining practices, the article describes the systematized types of hazards and patterns of their formation and occurrence in the course of ore caving, drawing and haulage. The discussed hazardous events and processes pose an actual threat on underground mining safety. The described patterns are the framework for selecting methods and means for stope assessment using advanced technologies, including unmanned vehicles or systems which become a tool for investigating nature of hazardous events and processes in stopes, with the prospects of application of the results in routine underground mining practices.

Kaplunov D. R., Radchenko D. N., Syrovatskiy R. A. Development and analysis of hazard formation in open stoping and haulage of ore. MIAB. Mining Inf. Anal. Bull. 2025;(12):5-16. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.25018/0236_1493_2025_12_0_5.

The study was supported by the Russian Science Foundation, Grant No. 25-17-00345, https://rscf.ru/project/25-17-00345/.

D.R. Kaplunov¹, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Dr. Sci. (Eng.), Professor, Chief Researcher, e-mail: kapdan@rambler.ru, ORCID ID: 0000-0001-7199-5453,
D.N. Radchenko¹, Cand. Sci. (Eng.), Assistant Professor, Leading Researcher, e-mail: mining_expert@mail.ru, ORCID ID: 0000-0003-1821-3840,
R.A. Syrovatskiy¹, Junior Researcher, e-mail: r_syrovatskii@mail.ru,
¹ Institute of Comprehensive Exploitation of Mineral Resources, Russian Academy of Sciences (IPKON RAS), 111020, Moscow, Russia.

D.N. Radchenko, e-mail: mining_expert@mail.ru.

1. Gromov E. V. Digital transformation of technological processes in underground mining: retrospective analysis and global experience. Minerals and Mining Engineering. 2020, no. 8, pp. 90—108. [In Russ].

2. Siddharth D., Bodin U., Andersson U. Key challenges in automation of earth-moving machines. Automation in Construction. 2016, vol. 68, pp. 212—222. DOI: 10.1016/j.autcon.2016.05.009.

3. Larsson J. Unmanned operation of load-haul-dump vehicles in mining environments. Orebro Studies in Technology. 2011, vol. 51, pp. 1—68.

4. Marshall J. A. Robotics in Mining. Siciliano B., Khatib O. (Eds.) Springer Handbook of Robotics. 2nd ed., 2016, pp. 1549—1576. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-32552-1_59.

5. Prokopieva V. M., Kaimonov M. V. Review of Robotic Technology in Mining. Interactive Science. 2023, no. 8 (84), pp. 49—53. [In Russ].

6. Radchenko D. N., Fedotenko V. S., Averin A. P. Design features of mining systems with autonomous and remotely controlled equipment for underground mining of solid minerals in extreme environments. Extreme robotics. 2024, no. 1(35), pp. 479—483. [In Russ].

7. Radchenko D. N., Syrovatsky R. A. Automation of the stoping process through coordinated operation of ore haulage and open stope condition monitoring systems. Problemy avtomatizatsii. Regional'noe upravlenie. Svyaz' i akustika: sbornik trudov XIII Vserossiyskoy nauchnoy konferentsii i molodezhnogo nauchnogo foruma [Problems of automation. Regional management. Communication and acoustics. Proceedings of the XIII All-Russian Scientific Conference and Youth Scientific Forum], Rostov-na-Donu; Taganrog, 2024, pp. 182—189. [In Russ].

8. Zhou J., Zhang Y., Li C., He H., Li X. Rockburst prediction and prevention in underground space excavation. Underground Space. 2024, vol. 14, pp. 70—98. DOI: 10.1016/j.undsp.2023.05.009.

9. Tampier C., Mascaro M., Ruiz-del-Solar J. Autonomous loading system for Load-Haul-Dump (LHD) machines used in underground mining. Applied Sciences. 2021, vol. 11, no. 18, pp. 1—27, article 8718. DOI: 10.3390/app11188718.

10. Neverov A. A., Neverov S. A. On the automation of stoping operations in the development of caving and backfilling mining systems. Bulletin of the Kuzbass State Technical University. 2010, no. 4, pp. 3—10. [In Russ].

11. Ran J. J. Safe mining practices under wide spans in underground non-caving mines — Case studies. International Journal of Mining Science and Technology. 2019, vol. 29, pp. 535—540. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmst.2019.06.006.

12. Guggari V. B., Hemant K., Gnananandh B. Numerical analysis for assessing the effects of crown pillar thickness on ore dilution around the sub-level open stopes. Ain Shams Engineering Journal. 2024, vol. 15, no. 1, article 102301. DOI: 10.1016/j.asej.2023.102301.

13. Szmigiel A., Apel D., Pourrahimian Y., Pu Y. Exploring machine learning techniques for open stope stability prediction: A comparative study and feature importance analysis. Rock Mechanics Bulletin. 2024, vol. 4, article 100146. DOI: 10.1016/j.rockmb.2024.100146.

14. Taheri S., Topal E., Nguyen H. J., Faradonbeh R. S. Predicting overbreak and underbreak in underground longhole stoping using meta-soft computing models. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology. 2025, vol. 164. DOI: 10.1016/j.tust.2025.106852.

15. Heidarzadeh S., Saeidi A., Rouleau A. Evaluation of the effect of geometrical parameters on stope probability of failure in the open stoping method using numerical modeling. International Journal of Mining Science and Technology. 2019, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 399—408. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmst.2018.05.011.

16. Cui X., Yang S., Zhang J. Optimization of stope structure parameters by combining Mathews stability chart method with numerical analysis in Halazi iron mine. Heliyon. 2024, vol. 10, no. 4. DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26045.

17. Manzoor S., Gustafson A., Schunnesson H. Modelling the relationship between oversize fragments and nature of rock mass for a sublevel caving operation. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 2023, vol. 169, article 105433. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijrmms.

18. McKinnon C., Marshall J. Automatic identification of large fragments in a pile of broken rock using a time-of-flight camera. IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering. 2014, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 935—942. DOI: 10.1109/TASE.2014.2308011.

19. Kurchin G. S., Shigin A. O., Anushenkov A. N., Kirsanov A. K., Volkov E. P. The use of unmanned aerial vehicles for managing underground mining processes. Mine Surveying and Subsurface Use. 2025, no. 1, pp. 82—86. [In Russ]. DOI: 10.56195/2079-3332-2025-25-1-82-86.

20. Joseph C., Gudekar A., Balooni S., Kumare D. Enhancing mining efficiency and safety with autonomous drone technology. Conference: 43rd INCA International Congress. 2023, pp. 135—141.